Abstract

Interoception, the process by which the nervous system senses, interprets, and regulates internal bodily states, is fundamental in maintaining physiological homeostasis, emotional regulation, and cognitive processing. Despite its significance, significant knowledge gaps persist regarding their underlying neural mechanisms, contributions to psychiatric and neurological disorders, methodological limitations in assessment, and potential clinical applications. This review synthesizes current findings and highlights unresolved questions in interoceptive research. The insular cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, brainstem, and autonomic nervous system are integral to interoceptive processing, yet the precise functional interactions among these regions remain unclear. Disruptions in interoceptive signaling have been implicated in psychiatric conditions such as anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorder, as well as neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. However, whether these interoceptive alterations are causative or consequential remains an open question. Inconsistencies in interoception assessment methods hinder progress, necessitating standardized, multimodal approaches that integrate behavioral, physiological, and computational metrics. Emerging evidence supports the clinical potential of interoception-based interventions, including mindfulness, vagus nerve stimulation, biofeedback, and cognitive behavioral therapy. Yet, their mechanisms of action and efficacy across diverse populations require further investigation. Advances in artificial intelligence and predictive modeling may enhance diagnostic precision and personalized treatment strategies. By addressing these challenges, future research can deepen our understanding of interoception’s role in health and disease, ultimately informing innovative therapeutic approaches.

References

1. Prescott SL, Liberles SD. Internal senses of the vagus nerve. Neuron. 2022 Feb 16;110(4):579-599. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.12.020.
2. Engelen T, Solcà M, Tallon-Baudry C. Interoceptive rhythms in the brain. Nat Neurosci. 2023 Oct;26(10):1670-1684. doi: 10.1038/s41593-023-01425-1.
3. Zhang R, Deng H, Xiao X. The Insular Cortex: An Interface Between Sensation, Emotion and Cognition. Neurosci Bull. 2024 Nov;40(11):1763-1773. doi: 10.1007/s12264-024-01211-4.
4. Molle L, Coste A. The respiratory modulation of interoception. J Neurophysiol. 2022 Apr 1;127(4):896-899. doi: 10.1152/jn.00027.2022.
5. Lovelock DF, Tyler RE, Besheer J. Interoception and alcohol: Mechanisms, networks, and implications. Neuropharmacology. 2021 Dec 1;200:108807. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108807.
6. Damasio A, Damasio H. Homeostatic Feelings and the Emergence of Consciousness. J Cogn Neurosci. 2024 Jul 1;36(8):1653-1659. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_02119.
7. Wiśniewski P, Maurage P, Jakubczyk A, Trucco EM, Suszek H, Kopera M. Alcohol use and interoception - A narrative review. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2021 Dec 20;111:110397. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110397.
8. Gabriele E, Spooner R, Brewer R, Murphy J. Dissociations between self-reported interoceptive accuracy and attention: Evidence from the Interoceptive Attention Scale. Biol Psychol. 2022 Feb;168:108243. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108243.
9. Coll MP, Hobson H, Bird G, Murphy J. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the relationship between the heartbeat-evoked potential and interoception. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2021 Mar;122:190-200. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.012.
10. Harrison OK, Marlow L, Finnegan SL, Ainsworth B, Pattinson KTS. Dissociating breathlessness symptoms from mood in asthma. Biol Psychol. 2021 Oct;165:108193. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108193.
11. Shah T, Dunning JL, Contet C. At the heart of the interoception network: Influence of the parasubthalamic nucleus on autonomic functions and motivated behaviors. Neuropharmacology. 2022 Feb 15;204:108906. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108906.
12. Fazekas C, Linder D, Matzer F, Jenewein J, Hanfstingl B. Interpreting physical sensations to guide health-related behavior: An introductory review on psychosomatic competence. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2022 Jan;134(Suppl 1):3-10. doi: 10.1007/s00508-021-01988-8.
13. Meulders A. Fear in the context of pain: Lessons learned from 100 years of fear conditioning research. Behav Res Ther. 2020 Aug;131:103635. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2020.103635.
14. Hazelton JL, Devenney E, Ahmed R, Burrell J, Hwang Y, Piguet O, Kumfor F. Hemispheric contributions toward interoception and emotion recognition in left- vs right-semantic dementia. Neuropsychologia. 2023 Sep 9; 188:108628. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108628.
15. Salamone PC, Legaz A, Sedeño L, Moguilner S, Fraile-Vazquez M, Campo CG, Fittipaldi S, Yoris A, Miranda M, Birba A, Galiani A, Abrevaya S, Neely A, Caro MM, Alifano F, Villagra R, Anunziata F, Okada de Oliveira M, Pautassi RM, Slachevsky A, Serrano C, García AM, Ibañez A. Interoception Primes Emotional Processing: Multimodal Evidence from Neurodegeneration. J Neurosci. 2021 May 12;41(19):4276-4292. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2578-20.2021.
16. Al-Zubaidi A, Iglesias S, Stephan KE, Buades-Rotger M, Heldmann M, Nolde JM, Kirchner H, Mertins A, Jauch-Chara K, Münte TF. Effects of hunger, satiety and oral glucose on effective connectivity between hypothalamus and insular cortex. Neuroimage. 2020 Aug 15; 217:116931. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116931.
17. Livermore JJA, Skora LI, Adamatzky K, Garfinkel SN, Critchley HD, Campbell-Meiklejohn D. General and anxiety-linked influences of acute serotonin reuptake inhibition on neural responses associated with attended visceral sensation. Transl Psychiatry. 2024 Jun 6;14(1):241. doi: 10.1038/s41398-024-02971-3.
18. Osorio-Gómez D, Bermúdez-Rattoni F, Guzmán-Ramos KR. Cortical neurochemical signaling of gustatory stimuli and their visceral consequences during the acquisition and consolidation of taste aversion memory. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2021 May; 181:107437. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2021.107437.
19. Schulz A, Köster S, Beutel ME, Schächinger H, Vögele C, Rost S, Rauh M, Michal M. Altered patterns of heartbeat-evoked potentials in depersonalization/derealization disorder: Neurophysiological evidence for impaired cortical representation of bodily signals. Psychosom Med. 2015 Jun;77(5):506-516. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000195.
20. García-Cordero I, Sedeño L, de la Fuente L, Slachevsky A, Forno G, Klein F, Lillo P, Ferrari J, Rodriguez C, Bustin J, Torralva T, Baez S, Yoris A, Esteves S, Melloni M, Salamone P, Huepe D, Manes F, García AM, Ibañez A. Feeling, learning from and being aware of inner states: interoceptive dimensions in neurodegeneration and stroke. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016 Nov 19;371(1708):20160006. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0006.
21. Pinna G, Johnson G, Costa E, Guidotti A. Endogenous brain neurosteroids and benzodiazepine pharmacology. Neuropharmacology. 2020 Jun; 168:108010. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108010.
22. Seth AK, Suzuki K, Critchley HD. An interoceptive predictive coding model of conscious presence. Front Psychol. 2012 Oct 15; 2:395. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00395.
23. Barrett LF, Simmons WK. Interoceptive predictions in the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2015 Jul;16(7):419-429. doi: 10.1038/nrn3950.
24. Quadt L, Critchley HD, Garfinkel SN. The neurobiology of interoception in health and disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2018 May;1428(1):112-128. doi: 10.1111/nyas.13915.
25. Allen M, Friston KJ. From cognitivism to autopoiesis: towards a computational framework for the embodied mind. Synthese. 2018;195(6):2459-2482. doi: 10.1007/s11229-016-1288-5.
26. Khalsa SS, Adolphs R, Cameron OG, Critchley HD, Davenport PW, Feinstein JS, Feusner JD, Garfinkel SN, Lane RD, Mehling WE, Meuret AE, Nemeroff CB, Oppenheimer SM, Petzschner FH, Pollatos O, Rhudy JL, Schramm LP, Simmons WK, Stein MB, Stephan KE, Van den Bergh O, Van Diest I, von Leupoldt A, Paulus MP. Interoception and Mental Health: A Roadmap. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2018 Jun;3(6):501-513. doi: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.12.004.
27. Craig AD. How do you feel--now? The anterior insula and human awareness. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009 Jan;10(1):59-70. doi: 10.1038/nrn2555.
28. Paulus MP, Feinstein JS, Khalsa SS. An Active Inference Approach to Interoceptive Psychopathology. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2019 May 7; 15:97-122. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095634.
29. Critchley HD, Nagai Y, Gray MA, Mathias CJ. Dissecting axes of autonomic control in humans: Insights from neuroimaging. Auton Neurosci. 2011 Oct 27;162(1-2):34-42. doi: 10.1016/j.autneu.2010.06.002.
30. Ainley V, Apps MA, Fotopoulou A, Tsakiris M. 'Bodily precision': a predictive coding account of individual differences in interoceptive accuracy. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016 Nov 19;371(1708):20160003. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0003.
31. Van den Bergh O, Witthöft M, Petersen S, Brown RJ. Symptoms and the body: Taking the inferential leap. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017 Nov;74(Pt A):185-203. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.015.
32. Petzschner FH, Weber LAE, Gard T, Stephan KE. Computational Psychosomatics and Computational Psychiatry: Toward a Joint Framework for Differential Diagnosis. Biol Psychiatry. 2017 Aug 15;82(4):421-430. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.05.012.
33. Seth AK. The cybernetic Bayesian brain: from interoceptive inference to sensorimotor contingencies. Open MIND. 2015; 35:1-24. doi: 10.15502/9783958571038.
34. Murphy J, Brewer R, Catmur C, Bird G. Interoception and psychopathology: A developmental neuroscience perspective. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2017 Feb; 23:45-56. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2016.12.006.
35. Park HD, Correia S, Ducorps A, Tallon-Baudry C. Spontaneous fluctuations in neural responses to heartbeats predict visual detection. Nat Neurosci. 2014 Jul;17(4):612-618. doi: 10.1038/nn.3671.
36. Garfinkel SN, Seth AK, Barrett AB, Suzuki K, Critchley HD. Knowing your own heart: Distinguishing interoceptive accuracy from interoceptive awareness. Biol Psychol. 2015 Jan; 104:65-74. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.11.004.
37. Weng HY, Feldman JL, Leggio L, Napadow V, Park J. Interventions and Manipulations of Interoception. Trends Neurosci. 2021 Jan;44(1):52-62. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2020.09.010.
38. Critchley HD, Garfinkel SN. Interoception and emotion. Curr Opin Psychol. 2017 Apr; 17:7-14. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.020.
39. Damasio A. The Strange Order of Things: Life, Feeling, and the Making of Cultures. New York: Pantheon Books; 2018.
40. Seth AK, Tsakiris M. Being a Beast Machine: The Somatic Basis of Selfhood. Trends Cogn Sci. 2018 Jun;22(6):486-498. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2018.03.008.
41. Barrett LF. How emotions are made: The secret life of the brain. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2017.
42. Petzschner FH, Stephan KE. Computational models of interoception and body regulation. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2022 Feb;72:84-91. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2021.09.009.
43. Paulus MP, Stein MB. Interoception in anxiety and depression. Brain Struct Funct. 2010 Jun;214(5-6):451-463. doi: 10.1007/s00429-010-0258-9.
44. Murphy J, Geary H, Millgate E, Catmur C, Bird G. Direct and indirect effects of interoception on social cognition. Emotion. 2022 May;22(3):463-477. doi: 10.1037/emo0001060.
45. Nicholson TM, Mathias CJ, Critchley HD. Autonomic dysfunction in psychiatric disorders: Interoception, attention, and emotion. Psychophysiology. 2020 Dec;57(12):e13657. doi: 10.1111/psyp.13657.
46. Fotopoulou A, Tsakiris M. Mentalizing homeostasis: The social origins of interoceptive inference. Neuropsychoanalysis. 2017 Jan;19(1):3-28. doi: 10.1080/15294145.2017.1295212.
47. Van den Bergh O, Brown RJ, Petersen S, Witthöft M. Interoception and somatization: A network approach. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2021 Jul;131:102-110. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.06.010.
48. Harshaw C. Interoceptive dysfunction: Toward an integrated framework for understanding somatic and affective disturbance in depression. Psychol Bull. 2015 Sep;141(5):990-1019. doi: 10.1037/bul0000016.
49. Khalsa SS, Rudrauf D, Sandesara R, Olshansky B, Tranel D. Bolstering cardiac regulation through interoceptive training. Auton Neurosci. 2022 Apr;236:102898. doi: 10.1016/j.autneu.2022.102898.
50. Farb NA, Segal ZV, Anderson AK. Mindfulness meditation training alters cortical representations of interoceptive attention. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2013 Jan;8(1):15-26. doi: 10.1093/scan/nss066.
51. Garfinkel SN, Critchley HD. Interoception, emotion and brain: New insights link internal physiology to social behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2013 Oct;14(10):571-582. doi: 10.1038/nrn3499.
52. Murphy J, Brewer R, Bird G, Catmur C. Developmental perspectives on interoception and self-representation. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2020 Apr; 44:100783. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100783.
53. Allen M, Tsakiris M. The body as first prior: Interoceptive predictive processing and the primacy of self-models. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2018 Jul 1;13(2):166-173. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsx075.
54. Sterling P. Predictive regulation: A new paradigm for understanding the stress response. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2012 Jul;33(3):221-230. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.06.002.
55. Seth AK, Friston KJ. Active interoceptive inference and the emotional brain. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016 Nov 19;371(1708):20160007. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0007.
56. Garfinkel SN, Seth AK, Barrett AB, Suzuki K, Critchley HD. Knowing your own heart: Distinguishing interoceptive accuracy from interoceptive awareness. Biol Psychol. 2015 Jan; 104:65-74. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.11.004.
57. Schulz A, Vögele C. Interoception and stress. Front Psychol. 2015 Feb 10; 6:993. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00993.
58. Critchley HD, Garfinkel SN. The influence of interoception on affective experience. Curr Opin Behav Sci. 2017 Aug; 19:38-43. doi: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.07.010.
59. Park HD, Tallon-Baudry C. The neural subjective frame: From bodily signals to perceptual consciousness. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2014 Nov 19;369(1641):20130208. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0208.
60. Ainley V, Tsakiris M. Body-conscious? Interoceptive awareness, measured by heartbeat perception, is negatively correlated with self-objectification. PLoS One. 2013 Feb 6;8(2):e55568. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055568.
61. Herbert BM, Pollatos O. The body in the mind: On the relationship between interoception and embodiment. Top Cogn Sci. 2012 Oct;4(4):692-704. doi: 10.1111/j.1756-8765.2012.01189.x.
62. Dunn BD, Evans D, Makarova D, White J, Clark L. Gut feelings and the body: Integration of interoceptive information in decision making. Psychol Sci. 2012 Nov;23(10):1289-1297. doi: 10.1177/0956797612442398.
63. Ebrat B, Fogel S, Parvaresh N, Sadeghi-Bazargani H, Lavasani FF, Ahmadi F, Ghasemi M, van den Heuvel MP, Duerden EG. Interoceptive dysfunction in psychiatric and neurological disorders: A meta-analysis of brain functional connectivity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2023 Aug;152:104487. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.104487.
64. Paulus MP, Stein MB. An insular view of anxiety. Biol Psychiatry. 2006 Jul 15;60(4):383-387. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.042.
65. Barrett LF, Quigley KS, Hamilton P. An active inference theory of allostasis and interoception in depression. Psychol Rev. 2016 Oct;123(4):425-451. doi: 10.1037/rev0000045.
66. Seth AK, Friston KJ. Predictive coding within interoceptive inference. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016 Nov 19;371(1708):20160007. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0007.
67. Garfinkel SN, Critchley HD. Threat and the body: How the heart supports fear processing. Trends Cogn Sci. 2016 Feb;20(1):34-46. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2015.10.005.
68. Quigley KS, Kanoski SE, Grill WM, Barrett LF. Allostasis and interoception: perspectives on self-regulation. Front Psychol. 2021 Mar 9; 12:619950. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.619950.
69. Porges SW. The polyvagal perspective. Biol Psychol. 2007 Feb;74(2):116-143. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009.
70. Tsakiris M. The multisensory basis of the self: From body to identity to others. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove). 2017 Sep;70(4):597-609. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2016.1181768.
71. Farb NA, Segal ZV, Mayberg H, Bean J, McKeon D, Fatima Z, Anderson AK. Attending to the present: Mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2007 Jun;2(4):313-322. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsm030.
72. Mechsner F. A psychological approach to human voluntary movements. J Mot Behav. 2004 Mar;36(4):355-370. doi: 10.3200/JMBR.36.4.355-370.
73. Critchley HD, Harrison NA. Visceral influences on brain and behavior. Neuron. 2013 May 22;77(4):624-638. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.02.008.
74. Khalsa SS, Lapidus RC. Can interoception improve the pragmatic search for biomarkers in psychiatry? Front Psychiatry. 2016 Jul 28;7:121. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00121.
75. Seth AK. Interoceptive inference, emotion, and the embodied self. Trends Cogn Sci. 2013 Nov;17(11):565-573. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.09.007.
76. Barrett LF. The theory of constructed emotion: An active inference account of interoception and categorization. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2017 Jan;12(1):1-23. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsw154.
77. Harshaw C. Interoception and the conditioning of appetitive behavior in infancy: Implications for obesity and addiction. Front Psychol. 2012 Nov 13;3:440. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00440.
78. Damasio A, Carvalho GB. The nature of feelings: Evolutionary and neurobiological origins. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2013 Feb;14(2):143-152. doi: 10.1038/nrn3403.
79. Gendron M, Barrett LF. Reconstructing the past: A century of ideas about emotion in psychology. Emot Rev. 2009 Apr;1(4):316-339. doi: 10.1177/1754073909338877.
80. Petzschner FH, Weber LAE, Stephan KE, Gard T. Computational psychosomatics and psychiatry: Toward a joint framework for differential diagnosis. Biol Psychiatry. 2017 Aug 15;82(4):421-430. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.05.012.
81. Craig AD. How do you feel? Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2002 Aug;3(8):655-666. doi: 10.1038/nrn894.
82. Critchley HD, Wiens S, Rotshtein P, Ohman A, Dolan RJ. Neural systems supporting interoceptive awareness. Nat Neurosci. 2004 Feb;7(2):189-195. doi: 10.1038/nn1176.
83. Garfinkel SN, Minati L, Gray MA, Seth AK, Dolan RJ, Critchley HD. Fear from the heart: Sensitivity to fear stimuli depends on individual heartbeats. J Neurosci. 2014 Nov 5;34(45):15118-15126. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5134-13.2014.
84. Harrison NA, Gray MA, Gianaros PJ, Critchley HD. The embodiment of emotional feelings in the brain. J Neurosci. 2010 Dec 1;30(48):12878-12884. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1726-10.2010.
85. Khalsa SS, Craske MG, Li W, Feusner JD, Biased DM, El-Gabalawy R, Nemeroff CB, Paulus MP. Predicting anxiety states with individual differences in interoceptive processing: An integrative model. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2023 Mar;8(3):345-357. doi: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2022.07.005.
86. Seth AK. Interoceptive inference, active inference, and the self. Trends Cogn Sci. 2021 Sep;25(9):726-739. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.06.008.
87. Barrett LF. The theory of constructed emotion: Active inference and the experience of emotion. Curr Opin Psychol. 2017 Feb;17:115-120. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.001.
88. Tsakiris M, Critchley H. Interoception beyond homeostasis: Affect, cognition, and mental health. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016 Nov 19;371(1708):20160002. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0002.
89. Park HD, Tallon-Baudry C. The neural subjective frame: From bodily signals to perceptual consciousness. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2014 Nov 19;369(1641):20130208. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0208.
90. Ainley V, Apps MAJ, Fotopoulou A, Tsakiris M. 'Bodily precision': A predictive coding account of individual differences in interoceptive accuracy. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016 Nov 19;371(1708):20160003. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0003.
91. Quigley KS, Barrett LF. Is interoception an overlooked superpower for self-regulation? Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2022 Oct;31(5):392-398. doi: 10.1177/09637214221109081.
92. Farb NA, Anderson AK, Mayberg H, Bean J, McKeon D, Segal ZV. Minding one's emotions: Mindfulness training alters the neural expression of sadness. Emotion. 2010 Oct;10(1):25-33. doi: 10.1037/a0017151.
93. Seth AK, Tsakiris M. The cybernetic brain: From interoceptive inference to self-awareness. Trends Cogn Sci. 2018 Oct;22(10):846-860. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2018.07.015.
94. Porges SW. The polyvagal theory: Neurophysiological foundations of emotions, attachment, communication, and self-regulation. New York: Norton; 2011.
95. Craig AD. Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2003 Aug;13(4):500-505. doi: 10.1016/S0959-4388(03)00090-4.
96. Adolphs R, Anderson DJ. The neuroscience of emotion: A new synthesis. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 2018.
97. Gu X, Hof PR, Friston KJ, Fan J. Anterior insular cortex and emotional awareness. J Comp Neurol. 2013 May 20;521(15):3371-3388. doi: 10.1002/cne.23368.
98. Barrett LF. How emotions are made: The secret life of the brain. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2017.
99. Craig AD. How do you feel now? The anterior insula and human awareness. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009 Jan;10(1):59-70. doi: 10.1038/nrn2555.
100. Seth AK. Being you: A new science of consciousness. New York: Dutton; 2021.
101. Critchley HD, Garfinkel SN. The influence of interoception on affective experience. Curr Opin Behav Sci. 2017 Aug;19:38-43. doi: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.07.010.
102. Barrett LF. The science of emotion: What people believe, what the evidence shows, and where to go from here. Emotion. 2017 Feb;17(3):431-436. doi: 10.1037/emo0000136.
103. Seth AK, Suzuki K, Critchley HD. An interoceptive predictive coding model of conscious presence. Front Psychol. 2012 Oct 15;2:395. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00395.
104. Garfinkel SN, Eccles JA, Critchley HD. The extended autonomic network: Interoception and regulation of blood pressure. Front Neurosci. 2021 Mar 18;15:674120. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2021.674120.
105. Barrett LF, Quigley KS, Hamilton P. Interoception and emotion: The role of prediction and error correction. Trends Cogn Sci. 2016 Oct;20(10):495-496. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002.
106. Klabunde M, Acheson D, Boutelle K, Matthews SC, Kaye WH. Interoceptive sensitivity deficits in women recovered from bulimia nervosa. Eat Behav. 2013 Aug;14(3):488-492. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.09.002.
107. Paulus MP, Feinstein JS, Khalsa SS. An Active Inference Approach to Interoceptive Psychopathology. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2019 May 7;15:97-122. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095634.
108. Porges SW, Doussard-Roosevelt JA, Maiti AK. Vagal tone and the physiological regulation of emotion. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 1994;59(2-3):167-186. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01283.x.
109. Ainley V, Tsakiris M, Pollatos O, Herbert BM. The interplay between interoceptive awareness and emotional regulation. Front Psychol. 2014 Jul 8;5:531. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00531.
110. Owens AP, Allen M, Ondobaka S, Friston KJ. Interoceptive inference: From computational neuroscience to clinic. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2018 Aug;90:174-183. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.04.017.
111. Khalsa SS, Adolphs R, Cameron OG, Critchley HD, Davenport PW, Feinstein JS, Feusner JD, Garfinkel SN, Lane RD, Mehling WE, Meuret AE, Nemeroff CB, Oppenheimer SM, Petzschner FH, Pollatos O, Rhudy JL, Schramm LP, Simmons WK, Stein MB, Stephan KE, Van den Bergh O, Van Diest I, von Leupoldt A, Paulus MP. Interoception and mental health: A roadmap. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2018 Jun;3(6):501-513. doi: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.12.004.
112. Critchley HD, Garfinkel SN. Mind, body, and the predictive brain. In: Barrett LF, Lewis M, Haviland-Jones JM, editors. Handbook of emotions. 4th ed. New York: Guilford Press; 2016. p. 64-77.
113. Seth AK, Tsakiris M. The multisensory basis of selfhood. Trends Cogn Sci. 2018 Jun;22(6):566-578. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2018.03.013.
114. Damasio A. The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 1999.
115. Porges SW. The polyvagal perspective. Biol Psychol. 2007 Feb;74(2):116-143. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009.
116. Garfinkel SN, Manassei MF, Hamilton-Fletcher G, In den Bosch R, Critchley HD, Engels M. Interoceptive dimensions across cardiac and respiratory axes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016 Nov 19;371(1708):20160014. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0014.
117. Park HD, Correia S, Ducorps A, Tallon-Baudry C. Spontaneous fluctuations in neural responses to heartbeats predict visual detection. Nat Neurosci. 2014 Jul;17(4):612-618. doi: 10.1038/nn.3671.
118. Tsakiris M, Critchley HD. The neuropsychology of interoception: Current evidence and future directions. Curr Opin Psychol. 2017 Apr; 17:129-134. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.06.014.
119. Barrett LF. Affective neuroscience: Science of the heart or science of the soul? Annu Rev Psychol. 2019 Jan 4;70:1-24. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011521.
120. Sterling P. Predictive regulation and human design. Front Hum Neurosci. 2012 Oct 15;6:307. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00307.
121. Farb NA, Segal ZV, Anderson AK. The mindful brain and emotion regulation in mood disorders. Can J Psychiatry. 2013 Feb;58(2):70-77. doi: 10.1177/070674371305800203.
122. Barrett LF, Simmons WK. Interoceptive predictions in the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2015 Jul;16(7):419-429. doi: 10.1038/nrn3950.
123. Seth AK, Critchley HD. Extending predictive processing to the mind, self, and consciousness. Trends Cogn Sci. 2016 Nov;20(11):763-764. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2016.09.013.
124. Craig AD. Topographically organized projection to the limbic forebrain from the posterior thalamic region in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1993 May 8;337(1):143-155. doi: 10.1002/cne.903370110.
125. Pollatos O, Traut-Mattausch E, Schandry R. Differential effects of anxiety and depression on interoceptive accuracy. Depress Anxiety. 2009;26(2):167-173. doi: 10.1002/da.20504.
126. Garfinkel SN, Tiley C, O’Keeffe S, Harrison NA, Seth AK, Critchley HD. Discrepancies between dimensions of interoception in autism: Implications for emotion and anxiety. Biol Psychol. 2016 Jan; 114:117-126. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.12.003.
127. Barrett LF, Quigley KS, Hamilton P. An active inference theory of allostasis and interoception in depression. Psychol Rev. 2016 Oct;123(4):425-451. doi: 10.1037/rev0000045.
128. Owens AP, Allen M, Ondobaka S, Friston KJ. Interoceptive inference: From computational neuroscience to clinic. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2018 Aug; 90:174-183. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.04.017.
129. Tsakiris M, De Preester H, editors. The interoceptive mind: From homeostasis to awareness. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2018.
130. Paulus MP, Stein MB. An insular view of anxiety. Biol Psychiatry. 2006 Jul 15;60(4):383-387. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.042.
131. Khalsa SS, Lapidus RC. Can interoception improve the pragmatic search for biomarkers in psychiatry? Front Psychiatry. 2016 Jul 28;7:121. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00121.
132. Gu X, Hof PR, Friston KJ, Fan J. Anterior insular cortex and emotional awareness. J Comp Neurol. 2013 May 20;521(15):3371-3388. doi: 10.1002/cne.23368.
133. Farb NA, Segal ZV, Mayberg H, Bean J, McKeon D, Fatima Z, Anderson AK. Attending to the present: Mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2007 Jun;2(4):313-322. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsm030.
134. Murphy J, Brewer R, Catmur C, Bird G. Developmental perspectives on interoception and self-representation. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2020 Apr; 44:100783. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100783.
135. Quigley KS, Barrett LF. Is interoception an overlooked superpower for self-regulation? Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2022 Oct;31(5):392-398. doi: 10.1177/09637214221109081.
136. Sterling P. Predictive regulation and human design. Front Hum Neurosci. 2012 Oct 15;6:307. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00307.
137. Damasio A. The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 1999.
138. Critchley HD, Garfinkel SN. Mind, body, and the predictive brain. In: Barrett LF, Lewis M, Haviland-Jones JM, editors. Handbook of emotions. 4th ed. New York: Guilford Press; 2016. p. 64-77.
139. Seth AK. Interoceptive inference, emotion, and the embodied self. Trends Cogn Sci. 2013 Nov;17(11):565-573. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.09.007.
140. Park HD, Tallon-Baudry C. The neural subjective frame: From bodily signals to perceptual consciousness. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2014 Nov 19;369(1641):20130208. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0208.
141. Ainley V, Apps MAJ, Fotopoulou A, Tsakiris M. 'Bodily precision': A predictive coding account of individual differences in interoceptive accuracy. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016 Nov 19;371(1708):20160003. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0003.
142. Quadt L, Critchley HD, Garfinkel SN. The neurobiology of interoception in health and disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2018 May;1428(1):112-128. doi: 10.1111/nyas.13915.
143. Barrett LF, Simmons WK. Interoceptive predictions in the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2015 Jul;16(7):419-429. doi: 10.1038/nrn3950.
144. Seth AK, Suzuki K, Critchley HD. An interoceptive predictive coding model of conscious presence. Front Psychol. 2012 Oct 15;2:395. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00395.
145. Barrett LF. How emotions are made: The secret life of the brain. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2017.
146. Paulus MP, Feinstein JS, Khalsa SS. An Active Inference Approach to Interoceptive Psychopathology. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2019 May 7;15:97-122. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095634.
147. Garfinkel SN, Critchley HD. Interoception, emotion and brain: New insights link internal physiology to social behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2013 Oct;14(10):571-582. doi: 10.1038/nrn3499.
148. Owens AP, Allen M, Ondobaka S, Friston KJ. Interoceptive inference: From computational neuroscience to clinic. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2018 Aug; 90:174-183. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.04.017.
149. Tsakiris M. The multisensory basis of the self: From body to identity to others. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove). 2017 Sep;70(4):597-609. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2016.1181768.
150. Ainley V, Tsakiris M. Body-conscious? Interoceptive awareness, measured by heartbeat perception, is negatively correlated with self-objectification. PLoS One. 2013 Feb 6;8(2):e55568. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055568.
151. Park HD, Tallon-Baudry C. Spontaneous fluctuations in neural responses to heartbeats predict visual detection. Nat Neurosci. 2014 Jul;17(4):612-618. doi: 10.1038/nn.3671.
152. Khalsa SS, Rudrauf D, Sandesara R, Olshansky B, Tranel D. Bolstering cardiac regulation through interoceptive training. Auton Neurosci. 2022 Apr; 236:102898. doi: 10.1016/j.autneu.2022.102898.
153. Murphy J, Geary H, Millgate E, Catmur C, Bird G. Direct and indirect effects of interoception on social cognition. Emotion. 2022 May;22(3):463-477. doi: 10.1037/emo0001060.
154. Fotopoulou A, Tsakiris M. Mentalizing homeostasis: The social origins of interoceptive inference. Neuropsychoanalysis. 2017 Jan;19(1):3-28. doi: 10.1080/15294145.2017.1295212.
155. Nicholson TM, Mathias CJ, Critchley HD. Autonomic dysfunction in psychiatric disorders: Interoception, attention, and emotion. Psychophysiology. 2020 Dec;57(12):e13657. doi: 10.1111/psyp.13657.
156. Harshaw C. Interoceptive dysfunction: Toward an integrated framework for understanding somatic and affective disturbance in depression. Psychol Bull. 2015 Sep;141(5):990-1019. doi: 10.1037/bul0000016.
157. Petzschner FH, Stephan KE. Computational models of interoception and body regulation. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2022 Feb;72:84-91. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2021.09.009.
158. Seth AK, Tsakiris M. The cybernetic brain: From interoceptive inference to self-awareness. Trends Cogn Sci. 2018 Oct;22(10):846-860. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2018.07.015.
159. Critchley HD, Garfinkel SN. The influence of interoception on affective experience. Curr Opin Behav Sci. 2017 Aug;19:38-43. doi: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.07.010.
160. Barrett LF. The theory of constructed emotion: Active inference and the experience of emotion. Curr Opin Psychol. 2017 Feb;17:115-120. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.001.
161. Azzalini D, Rebollo I, Tallon-Baudry C. Visceral signals shape brain dynamics and cognition. Trends Cogn Sci. 2019 Jun;23(6):488-509. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2019.03.007.
162. Pollatos O, Kirsch W, Schandry R. Brain structures involved in interoceptive awareness and cardiovascular reactivity: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neurosci Lett. 2005 May 6;382(1-2):89-93. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.02.043.
163. Suzuki K, Garfinkel SN, Critchley HD, Seth AK. Multisensory integration across interoceptive and exteroceptive domains modulates self-experience in the rubber-hand illusion. Neuropsychologia. 2013 Sep;51(13):2909-2917. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.08.014.
164. Herbert BM, Ulbrich P, Schandry R. Interoceptive sensitivity and physical activity. J Sports Sci. 2007 Jan;25(9):1027-1033. doi: 10.1080/02640410600843026.
165. Marshall TR, Gentsch A, Schütz-Bosbach S. Interoceptive cardiac rhythms influence perceptual and cognitive processes. J Cogn Neurosci. 2018 Oct;30(9):1207-1221. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_01263.